Early Specialization in Youth Sport: a requirement for adult expertise?

High Ability Studies, Vol. 14, No. 1, June 2003

JOSEPH BAKER

The role of early specialization in the development of sport expertise is a point of contention

among researchers. While there is consistent evidence linking quantity of training with level

of proficiency attained, a focus on specialized training during early stages of development

has been linked with several negative consequences. Diversified involvement in a number of

sports during early stages of development has been presented as a possible alternative to early

specialization. Considering the consequences of advocating the early specialization approach

and research suggesting the effectiveness of early diversification, coaches and sport

scientists should consider the early diversification approach as an alternative. Further

research is required to expand our understanding of the relative contributions of diversified

versus specialized training.

The acquisition of expertise in sport is the result of complex interactions among

biological, psychological, and sociological constraints (Singer & Janelle, 1999).

Successful negotiation of these constraints can lead to the highest levels of performance

while unsuccessful negotiation can lead to burnout and/or dropout from sport

(Wiersma, 2000). One issue of contention among researchers examining expertise

from a developmental perspective (e.g. Baker, Coˆte´ & Abernethy, 2003; Ericsson,

Krampe & Tesch-Ro¨mer, 1993) is whether aspiring expert athletes need to limit

their childhood sport participation to a single sport, with a deliberate focus on

training and development in that sport (i.e. early specialization—not to be confused

with recreational participation in a single sport). The opposite perspective (i.e. early

diversification) favours a focus on involvement in a number of different sports before

specializing in later stages of development (Wiersma, 2000). The purpose of this

review is to examine the evidence both for and against the early specialization

perspective and to present the early diversification approach as another path leading

to elite levels of performance. As well, directions for future research are presented in

order to further our understanding of the requirements of learners in the early stages

of expertise.

Author’s address: Joseph Baker, School of Physical and Health Education, Queen’s University,

Kingston, Ontario K7L 3N6, Canada.

ISSN 1359-8139 print; 1469-834X online/03/010085-10  2003 European Council for High Ability

DOI: 10.1080/13032000093526

86 J. Baker

Evidence Supporting Early Specialization

There is a wealth of evidence supporting the early specialization approach. In a

review of several decades of research on the effects of practice and training on

learning, Ericsson et al. (1993) speculated that early specialization in what they

termed “deliberate practice” (i.e. effortful practice that lacks inherent enjoyment

done with the sole purpose of improving current levels of performance) was essential

to the development of expertise in any domain. In their study of musicians, experts

began training around 5 years of age. Ericsson et al. posited that if training did not

begin early enough, late beginners would be unable to catch up to peers who began

specialized training earlier. Much of the empirical evidence to support the conclusions

presented by Ericsson et al. regarding early specialization centers around the

10-year rule (Simon & Chase, 1973) and the power law of practice (Newell &

Rosenbloom, 1981).

The 10-year Rule

In their classic study of chess expertise, Simon and Chase (1973) suggested that

inter-individual variation in performance can be explained by quantity and quality of

training. This hypothesis was based on findings indicating differences between the

expert level (grandmaster player) and lesser levels of skill (master and novice

players) was attributable to the ability to organize information in more meaningful

“chunks” rather than the possession of a superior memory capacity. Since then,

researchers (e.g. Starkes & Deakin, 1984) examining expert and novice differences

have found no reliable distinctions on static, physical capacities such as visual acuity,

reaction time, or memory (termed “hardware” by Starkes & Deakin, 1984) but

consistent differences for domain-specific information-processing strategies, such as

the ability to recognize structured offensive and defensive patterns (termed

“software” by Starkes & Deakin, 1984). Singer and Janelle (1999) summarized the

characteristics that distinguish the expert as follows:

(1) Experts have greater task-specific knowledge (McPherson, 1993; McPherson &

French, 1991).

(1) Experts interpret greater meaning from available information (Abernethy,

1987,1990, 1991).

(2) Experts store and access information more effectively (McPherson, 1993).

(3) Experts can better detect and recognize structured patterns of play (Allard &

Starkes, 1980; Simon & Chase, 1973).

(4) Experts use situational probability data better (Abernethy & Russell, 1984,

1987).

(5) Experts make decisions that are more rapid and more appropriate (Williams,

2000).

Research in sport expertise has been somewhat limited to perceptual or cognitive

sports; however, existing evidence suggests that in fields where the distinguishing

characteristics between experts and non-experts are domain-specific, informationprocessing

abilities, these differences are the result of training rather than innate

Early Specialization in Sport 87

abilities. While certain gross, general traits have been linked to genetic endowment

(e.g. intelligence: Bouchard, 1997), the refinement of these traits into domainspecific

abilities (e.g. pattern recognition, strategic thinking) is likely due to training.

The idea that there is a gene that predisposes an athlete to superior information

processing that is only manifested in a single domain (e.g. a gene for processing

soccer-specific information) is not supported empirically.

The “10-year rule” stipulates that a 10-year commitment to high levels of training

is the minimum requirement to reach the expert level. This rule has been applied

successfully in many domains including music (Ericsson et al., 1993; Sosniak,

1985), mathematics (Gustin, 1985), swimming (Kalinowski, 1985), distance running

(Wallingford, 1975), and tennis (Monsaas, 1985). Ericsson et al.’s (1993)

theory of deliberate practice extends Simon and Chase’s work by suggesting that it

was not simply training of any type, but the engagement in deliberate practice that

was necessary for the attainment of expertise. In the deliberate practice framework,

future experts perform training that develops required skills under continuously

evolving conditions where training stress and recovery are optimally balanced so that

maximal training adaptations occur and training plateaus are minimized.

The Power Law of Practice

Research examining the accumulated effects of prolonged practice and the rate of

learning has robustly indicated that performance increases monotonically according

to a power function. This finding, better known as the power law of practice (or the

log-log linear learning law), has been demonstrated consistently in numerous domains

(for a review see Newell & Rosenbloom, 1981). The power law of practice

states that learning occurs at a rapid rate after the onset of practice but that this rate

of learning decreases over time as practice continues. Put more simply, the more

time an individual devotes to practice, they greater their level of achievement but the

more difficult it becomes to make further improvements. Based on these findings,

Ericsson et al. presented the monotonic benefits assumption suggesting a monotonic

relationship between the number of deliberate practice hours and performance level

achieved. Their research with musicians indicated that the difference between expert

and non-expert pianists and violinists was due to the amount of time spent practicing

alone (i.e. in deliberate practice). The best musicians had spent in excess of

10,000 hours practicing alone while their less successful counterparts had no more

than 7,000 hours.

The Ericsson et al. (1993) research further supports the notion that proficiency

is tied to time spent in practice or training; moreover, they argued that it was

not simply the accumulation of deliberate practice hours over a period of 10 years

that led to superior levels of performance. The accumulation of such hours must

coincide with crucial periods of biological and cognitive development. Early specialization

became an important element in predisposing one to future success. Based

on these findings, Ericsson et al. concluded that the earlier one begins focused

training the greater chance they have of achieving exceptionality in their chosen

domain.

88 J. Baker

Consequences of Early Specialization

Although the empirical evidence supporting early specialization is sound, there are

negative consequences associated with this approach. Wiersma (2000) speculated

that the limited range of skills performed during early sport specialization has the

potential to limit overall motor skill development. This, in turn, may affect longterm

physical activity involvement (and therefore long-term health) by decreasing

the likelihood of participation in alternative physical activities.

Moreover, Wiersma (2000) suggested that early specialization could stifle sociological

and psychological development by reducing the number of opportunities for

growth in these areas. Sport is an excellent means of developing social skills such as

cooperation and socially acceptable behaviour; however, spending too much time

training may not provide enough time for social growth and can lead to “social

isolation” (Wiersma, 2000). Further, excessive training without adequate recovery

can lead to staleness and/or burnout (Henschen, 1998).

There are also physiological consequences to early specialization. In a review of

overuse injuries in adolescents, Dalton (1992) indicated that during crucial periods

of biological development excessive forms of training could have serious costs. An

example of this is often seen in the knees of developing athletes. Due to rapid bone

growth of the femur, tibia and/or fibula (such as occurs through a “growth spurt”)

tightness and inflexibility increase around the knee joint because muscles and

tendons have not increased in length at the same rate as the bones. This creates an

imbalance in the joint and under periods of physical training or activity increased

stress is applied to the knee and connective tissues. These imbalances increase a

youth’s susceptibility to knee injury from repetitive microtrauma and associated

conditions (e.g. Osgood-Schlatters’ disease or osteochondrosis).

Perhaps the most damaging evidence against advocating the early specialization

approach concerns sport dropout. Investigations of participants who drop out of

sport (e.g. Ewing & Seefeldt, 1996; Gould, 1987; Weiss & Petlichkoff, 1989) have

consistently indicated that lack of fun or enjoyment is a predominant motive for

discontinuing participation in a given sport. In a recent 10-year retrospective

investigation of drop out from competitive youth sport, Butcher, Lindner, and Johns

(2002) found that during early stages of involvement “lack of enjoyment” was the

most important reason for transfer to a different sport or withdrawal from sport

altogether. Recall that a defining characteristic of the deliberate practice activities

outlined by Ericsson et al. is that they are not inherently enjoyable. The types of

training advocated by the early specialization approach may be at odds with the level

of enjoyment necessary for a long-term commitment to physical activity involvement.

Support for Early Diversification

The early specialization approach is based on the assumption that in early stages of

development, deliberate practice is superior to other forms of training. Researchers

examining the early stages of development in elite athletes (e.g. Coˆte´, 1999; Hill,

Early Specialization in Sport 89

1993) have indicated that early sport specialization as a child does not seem to be

an essential ingredient for exceptional sport performance as an adult. Hill (1993)

indicated that performing a range of activities during youth was the norm for

professional baseball players while Ward, Hodges, Starkes, and Williams (2002)

found that elite soccer players did not specialize until after age 16. Furthermore,

Coˆte´ and colleagues found a variable sport involvement during early stages of

development in elite rowing and tennis (Coˆte´, 1999) as well as in field hockey,

netball, and basketball players (Baker et al., 2003; Coˆte´, Baker & Abernethy,

2003).

In the developmental models of sport expertise presented to date, early involvement

in sport comes in the form of diversified, play-like participation with little

emphasis on skill development and competition (Bloom, 1985; Coˆte´, 1999; Coˆte´ etal., 2003). Coˆte´ and colleagues (Coˆte´, 1999; Coˆte´ & Hay, 2002; Coˆte´ et al., 2003)

indicated that expert athletes “sampled” a wide range of sporting activities before

gradually whittling down the number of activities and “investing” in one activity

during mid to late adolescence. They argued that play-like involvement in a number

of sports is beneficial for developing the intrinsic motivation required during later

stages of development when training becomes more structured and effortful.

There is also evidence that athletes who had a diversified sport background were

not at a disadvantage compared to athletes who specialized early. In a recent study

of expert decision makers from the sports of basketball, netball, and field hockey,

Baker et al. (2003) indicated that participation in other relevant activities (e.g. other

sports where dynamic decision-making is necessary) during early phases of development

augmented the physical and cognitive skills necessary in their primary sport.

An examination of elite field hockey, rugby and water polo players by Stevenson

(1990) also suggests that those who have a diversified early involvement are not

disadvantaged. More interestingly, Barynina and Vaitsekhovskii’s (1992) study of

elite swimmers indicated that athletes who specialized early spent less time on the

national team and ended their sports careers earlier than athletes who specialized

later.

Our understanding of the mechanisms by which diversification influences skill

development is limited; however, it is likely linked to research examining transfer of

learning and the effects of cross-training. Thorndike (1914) suggested that

“identical elements” between tasks were transferable. More recently, Schmidt and

Wrisberg (2000) categorized transferable elements into movement, perceptual, and

conceptual elements. Movement elements refer to the biomechanical and anatomical

actions required to perform a task. For example, throwing a baseball overhand

and an overhand serve in tennis share movement elements. Perceptual elements

refer to environmental information that individuals interpret to make performancerelated

decisions. For instance, field hockey and soccer both require participants to

accurately interpret the actions of their opponents in order to be successful; therefore,

these sports share this perceptual element. Lastly, conceptual elements refer to

strategies, guidelines, and rules regarding performance. Gymnastics and diving share

conceptual elements (e.g. similar rules), as do basketball and netball (e.g. similar

strategies).

90 J. Baker

There is evidence that a “physical conditioning” category should be added to this

list of transferable performance elements. Researchers examining the physiological

effects of “cross-training” have provided support for the notion that general cardiovascular

effects can be transferred (e.g. Loy, Hoffmann & Holland, 1995). Over the

past two decades, exercise physiologists have spent considerable time examining the

transfer of cardiovascular and peripheral training effects across similar and dissimilar

modes. Typically, researchers have found that cross-training effects are more likely

to occur between sports that share similar modes of activity than between dissimilar

modes of activity. For example, short-term interventions of combined run–cycle

training, which share similar muscle groups (i.e. similar modes), have been found to

be as effective as running alone in increasing physiological parameters such as

aerobic capacity (Flynn, Carroll, Hall, Bushman, Brolinson & Weideman, 1998;

Mutton, Loy, Perry, Holland, Vincent & Heng, 1993) while combined run–swim

training was not as effective as running alone (Foster, Hector, Welsh, Schrager,

Green & Snyder, 1994). In a recent examination of transfer of training in triathletes,

Millet, Candau, Barbier, Busso, Rouillon and Chatard (2002) found that crosstraining

effects occurred between cycling and running but not for swimming (i.e. a

dissimilar mode of activity).

Increases in aerobic capacity are the result of central and peripheral adaptations

to training stress (Tanaka, 1994). Central adaptations include increases in blood

volume, stroke volume and maximal cardiac output while peripheral adaptations

include increases in capillary density, mitocondrial density and volume, and oxidative

enzyme activity. Previous research (Rowell, 1986; Saltin, Nazar, Costill, Stein

& Jannson, 1976) suggests that during early stages of training changes in aerobic

capacity are the result of the equal contribution of central and peripheral adaptation.

In highly trained individuals, these changes are accounted for almost entirely by

central adaptations leading to increased maximal stroke volume and cardiac output

(Rowell, 1986). However, while these reflect central training adaptations, they are

likely the result of specific peripheral adaptations such as the redirection of blood

flow away from non-exercising tissues (see Sutton, 1992 for a review).

Research also suggests that the effects of cross-training and/or transfer of

“identical elements” are most pronounced during early stages of involvement (Loy

et al., 1995; Schmidt & Wrisberg, 2000). For instance, any form of aerobic exercise

can cause the gross central adaptations that occur at the onset of any physical

training program; however, the more trained an athlete becomes, the smaller the

relative improvement from cross-training.

Researchers examining the differences in amounts of training between experts and

non-experts have indicated that significant differences do not typically occur until

around 10 years into their sporting career. In their study of expert field hockey and

soccer players, Helsen, Starkes, and Hodges (1998) suggested that at around 9 years

of involvement future expert athletes make the decision to invest significantly more

time and effort into training in order to reach the international level. Similarly, Baker

et al. (in press) found that the amount of time that experts and non-experts spent in

training was not significantly different until after 18 years of age. After this age,

experts dramatically increased their commitment to training.

Early Specialization in Sport 91

Future Research Directions

Collectively, these findings suggest that in certain sports early diversification may be

equally useful to early specialization in the acquisition of physical skill. While this

research provides evidence for the role of early diversification, our understanding is

far from complete. In particular, further research is required to address shortcomings

in two main areas, corroboration of previous research and laboratory-based

investigations of transferable elements.

Corroboration of Previous Research

When attempting to provide an alternative to something as empirically sound as

early specialization, corroboration of research findings are particularly important.

Studies to date supporting the role of early diversification have typically examined

team sports in decision-making environments (e.g. basketball, netball, and field

hockey players in Baker et al., 2003; baseball players in Hill, 1993). Future

investigations should examine the role of specialized versus diversified training in

other sports. Specifically, researchers need to examine whether early diversification

is applicable across all forms of sport or if it is restricted to a single category of sports

utilizing specific performance elements (e.g. team decision-making sports or aerobically

driven sports). Moreover, Starkes, Deakin, Allard, Hodges, and Hayes (1996)

indicated that elite figure skaters began training as early as 5 years of age while

wrestlers began training at 13 years. It may be that in sports where peak performance

occurs at a younger age (e.g. figure skating, gymnastics) early specialization is a

requirement for expert-level performance. Research is required to demonstrate how

applicable an early diversification approach is to sport in general.

Laboratory-based Investigations.

Experimental methods are essential to uncovering the mechanisms that influence

training adaptations through diversified training. Our understanding of the performance

elements that are transferable across domains and the time-span to which they

are limited is not known. The addition of strictly controlled environments and

manipulations of individual variables would provide required information in this

area. Further, the tracking of individual performance longitudinally, although time

consuming, may be necessary to understand the nature of the effects of early-diversified

training. Studies are needed that examine transfer effects over longer

periods than typically studied in order to identify the effects of diversified forms of

training.

Future studies should also examine training structure across periods of development

to better ascertain the essential components of training during early, middle

and later stages. As indicated by Helsen et al. (1998), the period around 9 years of

involvement represents a watershed in the development of sport expertise; however,

more research is required to determine what needs to occur before, during, and after

this period.

92 J. Baker

Conclusions

The role of this article has not been to present early diversification as a superior

method of training for reaching expertise. However, diversified training in the early

stages of development has been presented as an additional route leading to high

levels of performance but with the following qualifications. First, the other forms of

training must have similar underlying performance elements in order to be useful.

Second, the effect of diversified training decreases as the level of expertise increases.

While it is clear that empirical research supporting the early diversification approach

is limited, research from the fields of physiology and motor learning support its

validity. Considering the consequences of advocating an early specialization approach,

coaches and sport scientists should consider the early diversification approach

as an alternative.

References

ABERNETHY, B. (1987). Selective attention in fast ball sports II: Expert–novice differences.

Australian Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport 19, 7–16.

ABERNETHY, B. (1990). Anticipation in squash: Differences in advance cue utilization betweenexpert and novice players.

Journal of Sports Sciences, 8, 17–34.

ABERNETHY, B. (1991). Visual search strategies and decision-making in sport. International Journalof Sport Psychology, 22

, 189–210.

ABERNETHY, B., & RUSSELL, D.G. (1984). Advance cue utilisation by skilled cricket batsmen.

Australian Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 16, 2–10.

ABERNETHY, B., & RUSSELL, D.G. (1987). The relationship between expertise and visual searchstrategy in a racquet sport.

Human Movement Science, 6, 283–319.ALLARD, F. & STARKES, J.L. (1980). Perception in sport: Volleyball. Journal of Sport Psychology, 2,

22–33.

BAKER, J., COˆ TE´, J., & ABERNETHY, B. (2003). Sport specific training, deliberate practice and the

development of expertise in team ball sports. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 15, 12–25.

BARYNINA, I. I. & VAITSEKHOVSKII, S. M. (1992). The aftermath of early sports specialization for

highly qualified swimmers. Fitness and Sports Review International, 27(4), 132–133.B

LOOM, B. S. (1985). Developing Talent in Young People. New York: Ballantine.

BOUCHARD, T. J. (1997). IQ similarity in twins reared apart: Findings and responses to critics. InR. J. S

TERNBERG & E. GRIGORENKO (Eds.), Intelligence, heredity, and environment (pp. 126–

160). Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.B

UTCHER, J., LINDNER, K. J., & JOHNS, D. P. (2002). Withdrawal from competitive youth sport: A

retrospective ten-year study. Journal of Sport Behavior, 25, 145–163.C

Oˆ TE´, J. (1999). The influence of the family in the development of talent in sports. The Sport

Psychologist, 13, 395–417.C

Oˆ TE´ , J., BAKER, J., & ABERNETHY, B. (2003). From play to practice: A developmental framework

for the acquisition of expertise in team sports. In J. STARKES&K. A. ERICSSON (Eds.), Recentadvances in research on sport expertise

(pp. 89–110). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

COˆ TE´, J.&HAY, J. (2002). Children’s involvement in sport: A developmental perspective. In J. M.S

ILVA & D. STEVENS (Eds.), Psychological foundations of sport (2nd ed.) (pp. 484–502).

Boston, MA: Merrill.

DALTON, S. E. (1992). Overuse injuries in adolescent athletes. Sports Medicine, 13, 58–70.

ERICSSON,K. A.,KRAMPE, R. T.,&TESCH-RO¨ MER,C. (1993). The role of deliberate practice in theacquisition of expert performance.

Psychological Review, 100, 363–406.

EWING, M. E. & SEEFELDT, V. (1996). Patterns of participation and attrition in American

Early Specialization in Sport 93

agency-sponsored youth sports. In F. L. SMOLL&R. E. SMITH (Eds.), Children and youth in

sport: A biopsychosocial perspective (pp. 31–45). Madison, WI: Brown and Benchmark.F

LYNN,M. G., CARROLL, K. K.,HALL, H. L., BUSHMAN, B. A., BROLINSON, P. G.,&WEIDEMAN, C.

A. (1998). Cross training: Indices of training stress and performance. Medicine and Sciencein Sports and Exercise, 30

, 294–300.

FOSTER, C., HECTOR, L. L., WELSH, R., SCHRAGER, M., GREEN, M. A., & SNYDER, A. C. (1994).Effects of specific versus cross-training on running performance.

European Journal of Applied Physiology, 70, 367–372.

GOULD, D. (1987). Understanding attrition in children’s sport. In D. GOULD & M. R. WEISS

(Eds.), Advances in pediatric sports sciences (pp. 61–85). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

GUSTIN,W. C. (1985). The development of exceptional research mathematicians. In B. S. BLOOM

(Ed.), Developing talent in young people (pp. 139–192). New York: Ballantine.

HELSEN, W. F., STARKES, J. L., & HODGES, N. J. (1998). Team sports and the theory of deliberatepractice.

Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 20, 12–34.

HENSCHEN, K. P. (1998). Athletic staleness and burnout: Diagnosis, prevention, and treatment.In J. M. W

ILLIAMS (Ed.), Applied sport psychology: Personal growth to peak performance (3rd

Edition), (pp. 398–408). Mountain View, CA: Mayfield.

HILL, G. M. (1993). Youth sport participation of professional baseball players. Sociology of Sport Journal, 10, 107–114.

KALINOWSKI, A. G. (1985). The development of Olympic swimmers. In B. S. BLOOM (Ed.),

Developing talent in young people (pp. 139–192). New York: Ballantine.

LOY, S. F.,HOFFMANN, J. J., & HOLLAND, G. J. (1995). Benefits and practical use of cross-trainingin sports.

Sports Medicine, 19, 1–8.

MCPHERSON, S.L. (1993). Knowledge representation and decision-making in sport. In J. L.S

TARKES&F. ALLARD (Eds.), Cognitive Issues in Motor Expertise (pp. 159–188) Amsterdam:

North-Holland.

MCPHERSON, S. L. & FRENCH, K. E. (1991). Changes in cognitive strategies and motor skills in

tennis. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 25, 249–265.M

ILLET, G. P., CANDAU, R. B., BARBIER, B., BUSSO, T., ROUILLON, J. D., & CHATARD, J. C. (2002).

Modelling the transfers of training effects on performance in elite triathletes. InternationalJournal of Sports Medicine, 23

, 55–63.

MONSAAS, J. A. (1985). Learning to be a world-class tennis player. In B. S. BLOOM (Ed.),

Developing talent in young people (pp. 211–269). New York: Ballantine. MUTTON, D. L., LOY, S. F., PERRY, D. M., HOLLAND, G. J., VINCENT, W. J., & HENG, M. (1993).

Effect of run vs. combined cycle–run training on aerobic capacity and running performance.

Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 25, 1393–1397.

NEWELL, A. & ROSENBLOOM, P. S. (1981). Mechanisms of skill acquistion and the law of practice.In J. R. A

NDERSON (Ed.). Cognitive skills and their acquisition (pp. 1–55). Hillsdale, NJ:

Erlbaum.

ROWELL, L. B. (1986). Human circulation: Regulation during physical stress. New York: Oxford

University Press.

SALTIN, B., NAZAR, K., COSTILL, D., STEIN, E., & JANNSON, E. (1976). Nature of the training

response: Peripheral and central adaptations to one-legged exercise. Acta PhysiologicaScandinavica, 96

, 289–305.

SCHMIDT, R. A.&WRISBERG,C. A. (2000). Motor learning and performance: A problem-based learningapproach

. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. SIMON, H. A. & CHASE, W. G. (1973). Skill in chess. American Scientist, 61, 394–403.

SINGER, R. N. & JANELLE, C. M. (1999). Determining sport expertise: From genes to supremes.

International Journal of Sport Psychology, 30,117–150.

SOSNIAK, L. A. (1985). Learning to be a concert pianist. In B. S. BLOOM (Ed.), Developing talentin young people

(pp. 19–67). New York: Ballantine.

STARKES, J. L. & DEAKIN, J. (1984). Perception in sport: A cognitive approach to skilled performance.In W. F. S

TRAUB & J. M. WILLIAMS (Eds.), Cognitive Sport Psychology (pp. 115–128).

Lansing, NY: Sport Science Associates.

94 J. Baker

STARKES, J. L.,DEAKIN, J. M., ALLARD, F.,HODGES, N. J.,&HAYES, A. (1996). Deliberate practice

in sports: What is it anyway? In K. A. ERICSSON (Ed.), The road to excellence: The acquisitionof expert performance in the arts and sciences, sports and games

(pp. 81–106). Mahwah, NJ:

Erlbaum.

STEVENSON, C. L. (1990). The athletic career: Some contingencies of sport specialization. Journal

of Sport Behavior, 13, 103–113.S

UTTON, J. R. (1992). Limitations to maximal oxygen uptake. Sports Medicine, 13, 127–133.

TANAKA, H. (1994). Effects of cross-training: Transfer of training effects on VO2max betweencycling, running, and swimming.

Sports Medicine, 18, 330–339.THORNDIKE, E. L. (1914). Educational psychology: Briefer course. New York: Columbia University

Press.

WALLINGFORD, R. (1975). Long distance running. In A. W. TAYLER & F. LANDRY (Eds.), Thescientific aspects of sport training

(pp. 118–130). Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.

WARD, P., HODGES, N.J., STARKES, J.L., &WILLIAMS, A.M. (2002). The road to excellence in soccer:A quasi-longitudinal approach to deliberate practice.

Manuscript submitted for publication.

WEISS, M. R. & PETLICHKOFF, L. M. (1989). Children’s motivation for participation in andwithdrawal from sport: Identifying the missing links.

Pediatric Exercise Science, 1, 195–211.

WIERSMA, L. D. (2000). Risks and benefits of youth sport specialization: Perspectives andrecommendations.

Pediatric Exercise Science, 12, 13–22. WILLIAMS, A. M. (2000). Perceptual skill in soccer: implications for talent identification and

development. Journal of Sports Sciences, 18, 737–750.